This Issue:
Latino Families - December 2000

DCFS Services to Latino Families
by Luis Barrios, Office of Latino Services JRTC, with contributios by Gladys Rothman, Multicultural Consultant, DCFS Training and Development Division

Latino Families in the U.S.
1. Latino Families Face Unique Challenges
2. Latino Experience of Poverty is Unique

Latino Families and Parenting
3. Mexican American Parents Are Diverse
4. Latino Fathers Practice Positive Parenting
5. Supporting Mexican American Mothers
6. Needs of Custodial Grandparents
7. Recruiting Mexican American Adoptive Parents
8. Culturally Sensitive Parent Training

Latino Families and Sexual Abuse
9. Some Aspects of Sexual Abuse Are Unique
10. Treating Latino Sex Offenders

Child Welfare and Family Support
11. Child Welfare Services Must Change
12. Exemplary Family Support Programs
13. Providing School-Linked Services

Web Resources

DCFS Services to Latino Families     top

by Luis Barrios, Office of Latino Services JRTC, with contributions by Gladys Rothman, Multicultural Consultant, DCFS Training and Development Division

DCFS Serves a Rapidly Growing Latino Population
The Latino population is the second largest minority group and the fastest growing population in the State of Illinois. As of March 2000, DCFS served 2,010 Latino children and 1,320 Latino families . About sixty percent of Latino families involved with DCFS need bilingual services. Seventy percent of Latino children in DCFS care live in Cook County.

Latino Families Face Cultural and Language Barriers
The Latino families who are exposed to the child welfare system find themselves dealing with a host of unfamiliar governmental and social institutions. In addition, many of them are confronted with language barriers that sometimes prevent them from acting with the same understanding that English-speaking families have in similar circumstances. At times these families might demonstrate a lack of trust toward government entities. This mistrust is more often than not rooted in their personal histories in their countries of origin.

To compound the problem, Latino families must cope with the values and expectations of two very distinct cultures as they navigate their way through the multifaceted child welfare system. These families have to adjust very rapidly to a system whose basic purpose is to take control of the day-to-day life of the family at the level necessary to ensure the safety of children. They must deal with an unfamiliar system powerful enough to alter their relationships with their children, their extended families, and the communities where they live.

Problems Are Intensified by Poverty and Discrimination
Census data from 1990 reveals that one-third of U.S. Hispanic families with children under the age of 18 had incomes below the federal poverty level. Furthermore, poor Latino families face the same disadvantages and discrimination experienced by poor African-American families (Bureau of the Census 1992)- among others, lack of adequate housing, limited access to well paid, high-end jobs and inadequate health care services. Many Latino families were adversely affected by the 1981 recession. They never recuperated, and as a result did not participate in the growth and prosperity of the 1980's (Enchautegui 1992).

Employment data compiled by the National Council of La Raza (Facts Sheets Series 1991) show that at the national level the employment rate of Latinos is higher than for other racial groups; however, their earning power is considerably less. Consider the following findings presented by the National Puerto Rican Coalition to the Family Impact Seminar (monthly seminar co-sponsored by the Consortium of Family Organizations and the Foundation for Child Development and the Ford Foundation) in 1992:

These data imply that Latinos are in general hard workers, but factors such as lack of fluency in English, discrimination against people of color or with accents, and the fact that Latinos are unjustifiably identified as having the highest rate of illegal immigration into this country conspire to produce undesirable results.

DCFS Initiatives Result in More Responsive Services
During the last five years, DCFS has implemented a series of initiatives geared toward changing the environment in which field staff operate. Changes in the rule- and procedure-making process, the implementation of Best Practice and the achievement of COA accreditation enable the Department to be more responsive to the needs of all the populations we serve. Other initiatives - such as achieving permanency for all children, performance contracting, substance abuse treatment, and the development of the Latino Consortium - have more directly contributed to the improvement of services that are clinically, linguistically and culturally appropriate to the Latino population while also improving services to other clients.

DCFS continues to address the multiple concerns of our staff, contractual service providers and the community at large by increasing resources available to Latino families. Further results of Department efforts include:

The Latino Consortium Improves Collaboration
The idea for formation of the Latino Consortium originated in the mid-1990's, as a result of the need to ensure collaboration among groups of private agency providers under contract to DCFS. The mission of the agencies that form the Consortium is to provide a holistic array of community-based, linguistically and culturally competent social services for Latino children and families, through their own or sub-contracted agencies that dedicate substantial resources to serving Latino children and their families. Specific objectives of the Latino Consortium are:

Burgos Implementation and Strategic Plan Targets Communication Needs
The Office of Latino Services, the Office of the Burgos Coordinator, the Burgos Implementation Consultant and our legal staff have undertaken the task of developing the Burgos Implementation and Strategic Plan. This plan includes six general objectives:

Recruitment Model Is Designed to Attract More Latino Foster Families
The Burgos Consent Decree requires sufficient Latino and Spanish-speaking foster homes to meet the needs of children who are Spanish-speaking or come from Spanish-speaking homes. The Interethnic Placement Act of 1996 mandates that DCFS and private child welfare agencies diligently recruit foster and adoptive parents of the same race, ethnicity and national origin as the children in care.

We have developed a recruitment model to attract and retain more Latino families in our foster care system. The basic principles of this model are based on the use of personalismo, or the personal attention and contact especially valued by Latinos, at the level necessary for potential Latino foster parents to successfully navigate through our recruitment, training and licensure processes.

Multicultural Training Is Strengthened
The Division of Training is currently developing a very strong multicultural service. Its primary objective is to oversee the multicultural contents of Department training materials and to provide support and assistance to new bilingual staff, as well as to staff who attend training for continuing education.

Research Must Be Conducted Differently
Despite the progress made, there is still a great divide between the services received by English- and Spanish-speaking families. The farther we travel outside Cook County and its collar counties, the more difficulties we meet in providing services to these families. Much remains to be done.

DCFS-conducted research that routinely includes representative Latino population samples, bilingual researchers on study teams and translation into Spanish of research materials to facilitate the meaningful participation of Spanish-speaking families, children and foster parents is an important step that must be taken in order to ensure continuous improvement of services. Research reports must also clarify whether or not non-English speaking people were included.

Research in Action
The series of articles in this edition of Research in Action were carefully chosen to familiarize readers with some of the research-based information available about the social service needs and the strengths of Latino children and families. We hope this selection will entice readers to continue a search for new knowledge about this segment of our population.

References:
Bureau of the Census (1992). Current Population Reports: Poverty in the United States: 1991: Series P-60, No. 181@. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.

National Council of La Raza (1991). Fact Sheets Series. Washington, DC: National Council of La Raza.

Enchautegui, Maria (1992). Seminar: Latino Families, Poverty, and Welfare Reform. Washington DC: The AAMFT Research and Education Foundation.

Family Impact Seminars (1992). Latino Families, Poverty, and Welfare Reform. Washington, DC: The AAMFT Research and Education Foundation.

1. Latino Families Face Unique Challenges     top

Leyendecker, Birgit and Michael E. Lamb (1999). "Latino Families." Pages 247-262 in Parenting and Child Development in Nontraditional Families. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers.

Important Similarities and Differences
Latino families in the U.S. have important shared characteristics, which include:

  • Spanish language
  • origin in Central or South America
  • cultural values that emphasize the entended family and cooperation.

There are also important differences among Latino subgroups and individual families. Among these are

  • racial and ethnic background
  • socioeconomic and legal status
  • social networks
  • family structure
  • timing of immigration to the U.S.
  • geographic concentration in the U.S.

Immigration Has Affected Most Families
Immigration has been a central experience of most Latinos living in the U.S. Many have migrated from developing countries mired in poverty and war to an industrialized nation with different distributions of power, privilege and prestige. Dates of entry to the United States can reveal much about the conditions that affect individuals and families at the time of immigration.

Immigration patterns vary by country of origin.Mexican Americans have been migrating to the U.S.for one hundred years, and some became U.S.citizens when the Southwest was annexed in 1848. Immigration from post-revolutionary Cuba has taken place in several waves, with wealthier families arriving first. Most immigrants from other Latin American countries have come more recently.

Many Families are Poor
Census Bureau statistics for 1997 indicate that median household income rose for other ethnic and racial groups but dropped 5.1% among Latino families from the previous reporting period. Lack of visas,work permits and formal education are factors that contribute to Latino poverty. Also, many Latinos support family members in home countries.

Like others in poverty, poor Latino families need programs that address their needs - adequate schooling, health care, and job and language training. Unlike other groups, there is not a correlation between father absence and poverty among Latino families.

Youth May Fail in School
In 1994, school drop-out rates were 34.7% for Latino students, 15.5% for African Americans, and 12.7% for whites. This disparity has a number of causes:

  • Schools are poorly equipped to meet the needs of Latino students.
  • Parents are unable to help with homework due to their own lack of education and unfamiliarity with English.
  • Life in crime-ridden neighorhoods is stressful.
  • Students need to work rather than study.
  • Youth believe that education does not pay off.

The likelihood of school failure may increase over time in the U.S., as family resoures cannot overcome all the hardships of poverty. Youth from troubled families and those alienated from both ancestral and mainstream cultures are most likely to join gangs and engage in delinquent behavior.

Family Cohesion and Resources
Successful immigration demands great resourcefulness and adaptation to change. Overall, most Latino families adapt well to the challenge even thouth new immigrants lack multigenerational support because older generations usually stay behind. The importance of family tends to decline over time in the U.S. but remains high in comparison to other groups.

Biculturalism is A Strength
Most contemporary immigrants do not have the goal of assimilating into the U.S. "melting pot." Biculturalism allows Latinos to gain English language and other skills necessary for school and work success without giving up their own culture. To be successfully bicultural, it is not necessary to have equal involvement in both cultures or to feel equally comfortable in each.

Generations Adapt Differently
First-generation immigrants are more likely to retain the values and beliefs of their country of origin and less likely to compare themselves with members of the dominant culture. They often experience improvement in material circumstances as a result of immigration and feel less deprived. Second-generation Latinos in the U.S. and those who immigrate as children may feel more disadvantaged as the result of having unrealized expectations.

Effects of Culture and Poverty May Be Confused
Current literature on Latino families tends to focus on:

  • trauma of immigration
  • effects of poverty
  • high levels of fertility
  • low levels of education and high drop-out rates
  • adolescent involvement with gangs, drugs and violence.

Focusing only on these issues and forgetting that they are related mainly to poverty rather than culture may cause practitioners and researchers to overlook the unique strengths of Latino individuals and families and the positive possibilities of biculturalism.

2. Latino Experience of Poverty is Unique     top

Garcia-Coll, Cynthia and Heidie A. Vazquez Garcia (1995). "Hispanic Children and Their Families: On A Different Track from the Very Beginning." Pages 57-83 in Children of Poverty: Research, Health, and Policy Issues. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc

The impact of poverty on Latino children and families has not been well researched, and the existing research does not account for differences among Latino subgroups. For example, parenting practices vary among groups and individual families, and these practices may be influenced by poverty, or influence how poverty affects the children. Research has not studied these outcomes. However, there are indications that some effects of poverty are unique for Latino families.

Latinos Experience More Poverty
Latino youth appear to be at more economic and educational risk than any other U.S. population group. Data indicate that:

  • Latino children experience more poverty than Caucasian children and experience extreme poverty more often and for longer periods of time than other groups.
  • Latino families are falling behind other groups in median income.
  • There are economic differences within and among Latino subgroups.

Family Characteristics May Affect the Impact of Poverty
Some characteristics of Latino families may affect the impact of poverty in both positive and negative ways:

  • Latinos have higher rates of teen childbearing than Caucasians.
  • Negative effects of teen pregnancy may be reduced by the increased acceptance and support given by many Latino families.
  • Latinos, especially Mexican Americans, have higher rates of fertility and birth.

Acculturation and Poverty Interact
Interactions between acculturation and poverty are complex, and individual outcomes vary. Many Latinos are acculturated into chronic urban poverty and exposed to the destructive lifestyles associated with it. Their unfamiliarity with mainstream culture may mean they are unable to access important resources. Different levels of acculturation among family members may increase stress and make problem-solving more difficult.

Desire to learn about and adopt aspects of the host culture increase success in school and work, as do a variety of other individual and familiy strengths.

Poverty and Cultural Differences Affect Health
Latinos more often live in areas that do not meet EPA standards for lead air pollutants, and Latino families often cannot afford health insurance. Even when health care is available, Latinos' health outcomes may be worse than expected.

Latinos are also known to underutilize the health care that is available. Apart from lack of insurance, contributing factors are

  • unfamiliarity with terminology and procedures of U.S. health care
  • different beliefs about what constitutes an illness
  • preference by some individuals and families for folk medicine.

Fatalism and Discrimination Intensify Effects of Poverty
Some Latinos develope a fatalistic attitude in response to oppression, often expressed by accepting adversity as "God's will." While this can be a positive coping strategy when circumstances truly cannot be changed, it discourages action in situations that could be improved. Two areas in which U.S. Latinos often experience discrimination are:

  • substandard, culturally insensitive education
  • wage discrimination.

3. Mexican American Parenting Practices are Diverse     top

Martinez, Estella (1999). "Mexican American/Chicano Families." Pages 121-134 in Family Ethnicity: Strength in Diversity. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

The author reviews research about Mexican American parenting. Contradictory findings may reflect the diversity of Mexican American families.

Authoritarian/Traditional Childrearing
Four studies concluded that Mexican American parents use primarily authoritarian parenting practices and are guided by traditional values. One study found that use of punishment was associated with low socioeconomic status rather than culture.

Authoritarian Practices but Permissive Attitudes
Three studies found that parents value strictness and use authoritarian practices but are permissive in their attitudes toward children. One found that poor Mexican American, white and African American parents all use similar child-rearing techniques but with different goals in mind. Another found that authoritarian parents indulge boys more and give them higher status; they also become more protective of girls at puberty.

Desciplinary Roles and Practices Vary
Three descriptive studies observed the disciplinary roles and practices of Mexican American families with different income levels. The first found that both fathers and mothers in all income groups are nurturing and affectionate and emphasize traditional respect for males and the elderly.

The second concluded that fathers in all income groups assume the role of disciplinarian, and children receive most of their affection from mothers. Fathers in this study also increased emotional distance from their children at puberty to maintain authority, while mothers continued to be close to children of both sexes.

The third study found that working class parents either shared discipline or gave the role of chief disciplinarian to mothers, while professional parents were equally likely to assign the disciplinarian role to father or mother when they did not share the task.

More Recent Studies Find Parenting Quite Diverse
More recent studies have found a greater range of child-rearing beliefs and practices among Mexican American parents. Parental behaviors observed in these studies have ranged from permissive to authoritative to authoritarian. Findings include:

  • Ethnic or racial background is not always a factor in child-rearing practices.
  • A majority of Mexican American parents of both middle and lower socioeconomic status use positive reinforcement with their children, with 50% in each group also using negative reinforcement.
  • Mexican American parents of low socioeconomic status use more verbal and physical punishment, but physical punishment is the method least preferred by all parents.
  • Mexican American working-class mothers use diverse parenting practices, including positive reinforcement, reasoning and punishment, with half using authoritative practices and only 4% using permissive practices.
  • Ninety-eight percent of Mexican American parents believe their main task is to promote children's social and emotional development, while schools should encourage intellectual development.
  • Most Mexican American parents have different expectations of boys and girls.

4. Latino Fathers Practice Positive Parenting     top

Toth, John F., Jr., and Xiaohe Xu (1999). "Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Fathers' Involvement: A Racial/Ethnic Comparison of African American, Hispanic and White Fathers." Youth and Society v31 n1 p76-99.

In this study, a nationally representative sample of 199 Latino, 210 African American and 915 European American fathers participated in a study of fathers' involvement in three areas of childrearing:

  • behavioral - feeding children, talking to them, playing, etc.
  • affective - expressing and responding to emotions
  • cognitive - reasoning with children, planning for them, monitoring and evaluating their progress.

Previous Findings About Latino Fathers
Previous studies of Latino fathers have reached the following conclusions:

  • Mexican American fathers place more emphasis on family and children than Cubans or Puerto Ricans, but all three groups consider them more important than European Americans.
  • Mexican American fathers are concerned about monitoring girls, but give boys considerable freedom.
  • Puerto Rican American fathers have little direct involvement in childrearing.

Most Fathers have Good Parenting Skills
The three groups of fathers in this study were equally likely to be expressive, affectionate and encouraging with their children and their parenting was mainly positive. Other findings include:

  • Latino fathers spend more time than European American fathers both monitoring and interacting with their children.
  • Latino fathers base fathering on a stronger belief in the value of family than fathers in the other groups.
  • Latino fathers are traditional in their beliefs about family roles but more egalitarian in practice.
  • Strict Latino fathers are less affectionate with their children than strict European American fathers.
  • Fathers who emphasize conformity are more likely to be emotionally involved with children than fathers who encourage independence.
  • Fathers who have nontraditional beliefs about gender and family roles and value obedience are more likely to be involved in all three dimensions of parenting.

5. Jobs and Social Support Benefit Mexican American Mothers     top

Uno, Darcy, Paul Florsheim, and Bert N. Uchino (1998). "Psychosocial Mechanisms Underlying Quality of Parenting Among Mexican-American and White Adolescent Mothers." Journal of Youth and Adolescence v27 n5 p585-605.

Miller-Lancar, Cynthia L.., Loeta Jeanette Erwin, Susan H. Landry, Karen E. Smith and Paul R. Swank (1998). "Characteristics of Social Support Networks of Low Socioeconomic Status African American, Anglo American and Mexican American Mothers of Full-Term and Preterm Infants." Journal of Community Psychology v26 n2 p131-143.

These studies examine the relationship of social support, employment, and stress to the parenting abilities of mothers. The first was conducted at the University of Utah with a sample of fifty Caucasian and forty-nine Mexican American teen mothers. The second, done at the University of Texas Health Science Center in Houston, involved 53 Caucasian, 50 African American and 42 Mexican American mothers of various ages.

Mexican American Teen Mothers Report More Negative Parenting Behaviors and More Stress
Mexican American teen mothers report engaging in fewer nurturing behaviors and more harsh discipline than white adolescent mothers, related to higher levels of financial, parenting and general stress.

Employment and Social Support Increase Teen Mothers' Ability to Nurture
Employment produces benefits for young mothers that result in improved parenting, including:

  • more income
  • greater personal growth and self-confidence
  • respite from parenting.

When teen mothers who have low to moderate stress are employed, they exhibit more nurturing behaviors with their children. Both working teen mothers with high stress levels and young mothers who are unemployed are less nurturing with their children.

Social support also helps young mothers with moderate stress levels practice better parenting.

Highly Stressed Teen Mothers Benefit Less From Social Support
Unlike highly stressed older mothers, adolescent mothers with high stress levels do not benefit from increased social support. They seem unable to take advantage of it and may need interventions that teach them how to do so.

Socioeconomic Status and Friendships Affect Social Support
Mothers of lower socioeconomic status report less satisfaction with support received from both family and friends than mothers of higher SES, but social support is still very important to them. All groups found more satisfaction with support provided by friends than relatives. As many Mexican American mothers have support systems consisting mainly of relatives, they may benefit from support in developing friendships.

6. Latino Custodial Grandparents Have Unmet Needs.     top

Burnette, Denise (1999). "Custodial Grandparents in Latino Families: Patterns of Service Use and Predictors of Unmet Needs." Social Work v44 n1 p22-34.

Needs of Latino Custodial Grandparents Have Not Been Studied
Previous studies of custodial grandparents have focused on African Americans and whites. As Latinos now comprise 10% of more than 3.9 million grandparent caregivers, it is important to know about their service needs. This study of custodial Latino grandparents used a sample of 74 mostly female caregivers in New York City. Households had an average of two children each, ranging in age from 4 months to 18 years.

Most Grandparents Contend with Poverty
Eighty-one percent of the grandparents had incomes below the poverty line, and 75% lived in extreme poverty, but it is likely that they were "better off" than those not involved with the social service system. Factors contributing to this high degree of poverty were

  • low levels of education and English proficiency
  • public policy that restricts income and other material supports.

Custodial Arrangements Vary
A little more than one third of the custodial arrangements were informal, 56% involved privately-arranged guardianship or custody, and 6% resulted from participation in the kinship foster care program.

A Variety of Services Are Used on Behalf of Children
The most widely-used services were financial support for basic needs, including Temporary Assistance to Needy Families and nutritional programs. Other services used on behalf of children included:

  • counseling (more than 50%)
  • legal assistance with custody, visitation and related issues (41%)
  • health services for special needs (one third)
  • special education (27%)
  • substance abuse or HIV/AIDS education (20%)
  • parent education (15%)

Grandparents Also Use Services
Services used by grandparents for themselves were

  • medical (85%)
  • individual counseling (nearly 50%)
  • caregiver support groups (42%)
  • marital or family counseling (10%).

There Are Numerous Unmet Needs
Although the grandparents reported using an average of six services each, 80% also experienced at least one unmet need. Unmet needs the researchers asked about were:

  • Spanish-speaking hot lines
  • support groups
  • respite child care
  • parent education
  • legal help.

Other unmet needs reported by grandparents, in order of greatest to least frequency, were:

  • decent, affordable housing
  • cash and in-kind financial assistance, especially food stamps and Medicaid
  • child care
  • neighborhood safety
  • camps and enrichment programs for children and youth
  • rehabilitation for adult children
  • translation services
  • food, clothing, infant formula and diapers.

Changes in Policy and Practice Can Help
Policy changes that improve material support of poor grandparents and address the problem of inadequate health insurance are needed. Increased availability of adult literacy and English classes would help reduce barriers created by lack of education and English proficiency. Practitioners can help by advocating for these changes.

Clinicians can improve individual intervention plans by assessing and targeting the stresses and unmet needs experienced by custodial grandparents.

Administrators and practitioners can also help by:

  • increasing general knowledge about services, locating services where they are most needed and directing outreach to those most in need
  • improving coordination of services
  • providing bilingual workers and increasing cultural sensitivity of staff and services.

7. Recruiting Mexican American Adoptive Parents     top

Bausch, Robert S. and Richard T. Serpe (1999). "Recruiting Mexican American Adoptive Parents." Child Welfare v78 n5 p693-716.

This California study of 591 Mexican American participants identifies a number of strategies for recruiting Mexican American adoptive parents.

Participant Characteristics

  • Average age was 36.
  • Sixty percent were female.
  • Household income ranged from $15,000 to $25,000.
  • No one in the sample had adopted a child but 38% said they were likely to adopt.
  • Fifty-seven percent would prefer a child under 1 year of age, 21% a child aged 2 to 3 years, 14% a child of 4 to 6, and 8% a child aged 7 to 12.
  • Thirty-five percent were willing to adopt a physically handicaped child and 28% would adopt a child with a psychological or behavior problem.
  • Twenty-eight percent would adopt an adolescent.

Situational Barriers Are Most Powerful
Respondents identified three major barriers to adoption:

  • lack of information about adoption in general and about the need for Mexican American adoptive parents in particular
  • inadequate income
  • lack of bilingual adoption workers.

Cultural barriers with some deterrent effects are:

  • the belief that Mexican Americans should take care of children within their own families
  • the belief that adoption is a threat to masculinity
  • the fact that adoption has not been historically practiced by Mexican Americans.

Cultural beliefs are relatively difficult to change, so scarce resources are better aimed at removing situational barriers.

Motivation to Adopt Can Be Improved
Recruiting strategies most likely to be effective with Mexican Americans include providing:

  • more information about the need for Mexican American adoptive parents and adoption in general, via public service announcements, community and religious leaders, and at Mexican American community events
  • support groups run by Latinos for prospective adopters and adoptive parents
  • financial support for adoption
  • bilingual workers at adoption agencies
  • more flexible criteria for adoptive parents, particularly in regard to marital status and income.

8. Parent Training Must Be Culturally Sensitive     top

Forehand, Rex and Beth A. Kotchick (1996)."Cultural Diversity: A Wake-Up Call for Parent Training." Behavior Therapy v27 n2 p187-206.

The authors make best practice recommendations, based on clinical experience and research, for parent skill training with minority groups. They include specific recommendations for working with Latino parents.

Miinority Parents Are Sometimes Viewed As Deficient
Parent skills training has long been recognized as an effective intervention for children with behavior problems, such as aggression and noncompliance, but it has been developed and evaluated primarily with families from European American backgrounds. As a result, parents from minority groups are often mistakenly viewed as deficient when the mainly middle class, white standards that prevail are taken as the norm.

Influences on Parenting Behavior are Complex
Parenting practices are affected by many factors that reflect or influence what particular groups and individuals believe is necessary for children to survive and succeed. Some of the most important are

  • traditional cultural values
  • interaction with other ethnic/cultural groups
  • past experience
  • socioeconomic status
  • the opportunities parents perceive for their children
  • safety and security of the environment.

Traditional Values Influence Some Latino Parents
The following traditional values may influence Latino parents and should be respected by clincians when they are present. However, there is considerable diversity among individuals, and these should not be used as a stereotype:

  • strong sense of family and family loyalty, with corresponding reliance on extended family and friends for help with childrearing and other support
  • belief in the inherent worth and dignity of all people
  • cooperation valued more than competitive achievement
  • quality of relationships with children considered more important than strict disciplinary standards.

Poor Parents Experience Stressors That Interfere with Training
It is important to remember that poor families experience stresses that make it harder to participate in and benefit from parent training, including:

  • services that are limited in scope, not easily accessable or offered at convenient times
  • lack of child care
  • inflexible work hours or unemployment
  • substandard housing and overcrowded, dangerous neighborhoods.
As a result, they may not respond in the same way to training or be able to maintain gains as long as families with more advantages.

Discrimination May Result in Avoidance
Parents who meet with negative judgments and discrimination from majority group members may view skill training as another means of shaping their behavior and that of their children into conformity with mainstream culture. This can only be overcome by provision of more culturally sensitive services.

Study Sheds Light on Involving Latino Parents
A 1992 study of 90 Mexican American mothers in Los Angeles (Armenta) found that most were unfamiliar with parent training but interested once informed. The study identitied ways for:

  • Recruiting Parents - Personal contacts and information presented in pamphlets, television ads and flyers are all effective ways to provide information about parent training. Course titles are important. "Understanding Your Child," "Helping Your Child in School," and "Resolving Conflicts" aroused the most interest. Hold fees to below $40.
  • Encouraging Continued Involvement-Childcare during sessions and transportation to sessions were the best incentives. Mothers preferred courses offered close to home, during the day, lasting 30 to 60 minutes per session and for 5 to 7 weeks. Encouraging fathers' participation was also very important.

Mothers regarded trainers' ability to understand and respect them as more important than their cultural backgrounds or fluency in Spanish.

9. Some Aspects of Sexual Abuse Are Unique to Latinos     top

Arellano, Charleanea M., Jill A. Kuhn and Ernest L. Chavez (1997). "Psychosocial Correlates of Sexual Assault Among Mexican American and White Non-Hispanic Adolescent Females." Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences v19 n4 p446-460.

Arroyo, Judith A., Tracy L. Simpson and Alfredo S. Aragon (1997). "Childhood Sexual Abuse Among Hispanic and Non-Hispanic White College Women." Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences v19 n1 p57-68.

Huston, Rebecca L., Juan M. Parra, Thomas J. Prihoda, and D. Michael Foulds (1995). "Characteristics of Childhood Sexual Abuse in a Predominantly Mexican-American Population." Child Abuse and Neglect v19 n2 p165-176.

Mennen, Ferol E. (1995). "The Relationship of Race/Ethnicity to Symptoms in Childhood Sexual Abuse." Child Abuse and Neglect v19 n1 p115-124.

Moisan, Peter A. , Kathy Sanders-Phillips, and Paula M. Moisan (1997). "Ethnic Differences in Circumstances of Abuse and Symptoms of Depression and Anger Among Sexually Abused Black and Latino Boys." Child Abuse and Neglect v21 n5 p473-488.

Romero, Gloria J., Gail E. Wyatt, Tamra Burns Loeb, Jennifer Vargas Carmona and Beatriz M. Solis. "Prevalence and Circumstances of Child Sexual Abuse Among Latina Women." Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences v21 n3 p351-365.

Sanders-Phillips, Kathy, Peter A. Moisan, Stacy Wadlington, Stacey Morgan, and Kerry English (1995). "Ethnic Differences in Psychological Functioning Among Black and Latino Sexually Abused Girls." Child Abuse and Neglect v19 n6 p691-706.

These studies investigate sexual abuse in different Latino groups. Relatively little research has focused on the prevalence, characteristics and effects of sexual abuse among Latinos, with abuse of boys receiving the least attention, and some results are contradictory.

Prevalence Statistics Vary
Several studies have found prevalence rates for sexual abuse among Latinos lower than those for African Americans and whites. Others, however, report rates that are comparable. Prevalence rates range from 3% to 33%, with most victims reporting abuse that occurred during elementary or high school.

Nonreporting Rates and Abuse Severity Cause Concern
Nonreporting rates among women in these studies range from 23.5% to 60%. Rates of nonreporting for male victims have not been studied. Reasons for nonreporting, from most to least common, include

  • feeling afraid of not being believed, being blamed, being physically punished or otherwise getting into trouble
  • not knowing anyone to tell
  • feeling ashamed, embarrassed or dirty
  • wanting to protect others
  • forgetting the incident or not being able to recall why disclosure was not made.

Investigators express concern that nonreporting may also stem from fear of deportation.

Nonreporting by Latinos is of particular concern, because both male and female Latino victims report higher rates of severe abuse than African Americans and whites. Increased reporting can be encouraged by:

  • reporting procedures that reflect concern about Latinos' specific fears
  • more effective outreach to recent immigrants
  • culturally sensitive education about the nature and consequences of sexual abuse.

Abuse By Extended Family Members is More Common
Recent studies report that Latino children experience higher rates of sexual abuse by extended family members than whites or African Americans. Interventions in these cases should focus on protecting children from reabuse while preserving the benefits of extended family whenever possible.

Some Responses May Be Culturally Determined
Latinas report negative effects of sexual abuse that are in most ways identical to outcomes reported by other groups, including:

  • increased experience of negative emotions in general and negative feelings toward men
  • difficulty thinking clearly when reminded of the abuse
  • more problems with sexuality
  • difficulty forming close relationships of all kinds
  • decreased self-confidence and self-esteem
  • more alcohol and other drug involvement
  • liking school less and having poorer grades
  • having more arrests, time in juvenile detention or jail and engaging in more antisocial behaviors.

Some Latinas experience more distress than women from other groups in response to abuse involving penetration. Interventions should explore its significance, including the importance of virginity, to individual clients. For some, it may help to redefine loss of virginity so as to exclude the effects of sexual abuse.

A very small number of women in one study reported they were forced to marry their abusers. This may signal the need to educate some families about the differences between normal experience and sexual abuse.

10. Treating Latino Sex Offenders     top

Loredo, Carlos M. (1999). "Intervention with Hispanic Sexual Abusers." Pages 121-149 in Cultural Diversity in Sexual Abuser Treatment: Issues and Approaches. Brandon, VT: Safer Society Press.

Treatment of Latino sexual offenders has received little empirical study. However, clinical experience and the research available suggest ways of working with Latino sexual offenders to improve treatment effectiveness.

Culturally Competent Treatment Involves These Assumptions
As with all clients from other cultures, it is important to bear these principles in mind when working with Latinos:

  • All practitioners can benefit from improving their awareness of and respect for other cultures.
  • Clinicans must recognize that discrimination affects clients on national, state and local levels.
  • Practitioners must address individual and institutional discomfort about differences. It is more important to do this than to refrain out of fear of doing or saying the wrong thing.
  • Practitioners must be aware of aspects of their own culture that affect their work, as well as the relevant beliefs and values of other cultures. For example, clinicians who provide treatment for sexual abuse must know the prevailing beliefs about sex and gender roles in their own culture as well as in the cultures of individuals they are treating.

Overcoming Language Barriers is Crucial
Without bilingual treatment, Latino clients may not be able to fully express emotions and experiences crucial to success. Bilingual clincians are particularly important in work with clients who speak only Spanish. Even clients who speak English well, however, may describe personal issues and emotions better in Spanish and may want to alternate between languages. Miscommunication may also occur with use of standardized tests, in English or Spanish translation, so results should be used with caution.

Exclusive use of translators is inappropriate. Too much meaning will be lost no matter how accurate the translation. Because it inevitably places them in conflicting roles, children or other family members should never be employed as translators .

Culture-Based Behaviors May Conflict with Treatment
Some traditional Latino practices may be at odds with Western therapeutic methods, such as:

  • avoiding eye contact
  • avoiding expression of "negative" feelings like anger
  • expressing agreement, regardless of what is really felt, or failing to ask questions when something is not understood in order to save face or defer to authority figures.

Cultural Issues Hinder Discussion of Offenses
Some cultural issues make open discussion of sexual offenses particularly difficult for Latinos, including

  • the concept of verguenza, or shame, which is a strong conviction that individual behavior reflects on the entire family
  • taboos about discussing sexual behaviors that many Latinos regard as deviant, such as oral sex, masturbation and sexual arousal with boys or other men
  • prohibitions against discussing sexual matters that involve children or offenders who are respected elders
  • concern about retribution from members of the victim's family.

Specific Issues May Result in Victim Blame
Some Latino beliefs may lead to victim blaming by relatives and friends. Abused girls may be treated as sullied and partly responsible for losing their sexual purity. Boys abused by males are sometimes viewed as homosexual and/or shamed by the role of victim.

These Measures Have Been Most Helpful:

  • Cognitive-behavioral treatment, judged to be particularly effective with sex offenders, is compatible with traditional Latino respect for authority.
  • Open, respectful communication - Understanding clients' beliefs and feelings is always of the utmost importance, but must not interfere with the open communication necessary to treat offenders and ensure protection of victims. Some offenders may be more willing initially to discuss taboo sexual behaviors with female practitioners, sometimes seen as less judgmental than males. Tactfully asking Latino clients to repeat important information will assure that misunderstandings are cleared up.
  • Involving respected community members - Depending on circumstances, it may be helpful to involve a priest, supportive elder family members or members of another family who have dealt with sex abuse in discussing particularly sensitive issues.
  • Group educational sessions with other Latino clients can also be very effective in promoting communication and educating about sexual abuse.

11. Child Welfare Services for Latinos Must Change     top

Ortega, Robert M., Cindy Guillean, and Lourdes Gutierrez Majera, University of Michigan School of Social Work, and The National Latino Child Welfare Advocacy Group (1996). Latinos and Child Welfare/Latinos y el Bienestar del Nino Voces de la Comumidad. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan School of Social Work. 29p

Latino Providers and Consumers Were Surveyed
The authors report results of a study done by the National Latino Child Welfare Advocacy Group to answer the question, "What are the current child welfare needs of Latino children and families?" The study was part of the Kellogg Foundation's Families for Kids Initiative and included input from Latino child welfare providers, service consumers and other members of the Latino communities in California, Florida, Illinois, Michigan, New York and Texas.

National Data Review Confirmed Previous Knowledge
A review of national data on Latinos and child welfare confirmed much of what was widely known in the field:

  • Latino children made up 12% of the U.S. child population in 1996, with a growth rate about seven times higher than other groups.
  • Nationally,14% of 440,073 children living in out-of-home care in 1993 were Latino. In states where Latinos are more concentrated, such as California and Texas, about 30% of children in substitute care were Latino.
  • In 1994, 9.4% of abuse and neglect victims were Latino, a 2.5% rise from the previous year.
  • Latino children entering foster care for the first time had stays ranging from nine to twenty-four months.
  • The number of Latino children free for adoption and the average length of time they spend awaiting adoption was unknown.

The Latino Community Is Concerned about Children
Parents and other community members express concern about the well being of their children but find child welfare services impersonal, intimidating and in conflict with Latino cultural values. They view family preservation, along with preservation of language and cultural identity, as essential when a child is placed in substitute care.

Children's exposure to violence and alcohol/drug abuse in the community, as well as crime in neighborhoods and schools, are of greatest concern. Working mothers fear their absence from home makes children more vulnerable to these problems. Many feel isolated with their concerns, stating that the sense of community and mutual support experienced in their own childhood homes is missing in their present neighborhoods.

Many Eligible Latinos Do Not Use Services
Latino child welfare providers report infrequent use of child welfare services by eligible Latinos. Fear, lack of knowledge and language barriers are serious obstacles to community reporting of children for child welfare services. Instead, most Latino children are referred to protective services by schools, health care providers and child care facilities. Less than 25% of families referred to preventive services make use of them.

Community Input and Location Increase Service Use
Latino practitioners report that programs providing the most effective services to Latino children and families:

  • have meamingful Latino input into programs
  • recruit Latino foster and adoptive families
  • hire bilingual practitioners and
  • locate programs in Latino communities.

Conclusions Drawn from the Study, and Recommendations for Improving Services:

  • Latino children are unaccounted for in the child welfare system -Set federal standards for accurate identification and tracking of Latino children in child welfare and hold states accountable for using them; establish monitoring and review boards made up of Latino child welfare experts at national and state levels
  • Latinos must move from exclusion to inclusion - Facilitate inclusion of Latinos in planning,implementing and monitoring child welfare policies, programs and administrative procedures; increase participation of Latino grassroots organizations at the local, state and national levels; educate Latinos about child welfare services and child welfare workers about Latinos; require programs to accommodate language and cultural differences; speed up efforts to reunify Latino children with their families or locate other permanent placements; develop prevention programs that strengthen Latino families.
  • Focus more on the welfare of the Latino child rather than Latino child welfare - Build safer and more secure community environments; improve collaboration among agencies and institutions concerned with the welfare of children.

12. Lessons from Exemplary Family Support Programs     top

Shartrand, Angela and the Harvard Family Research Project (1996). Supporting Latino Families: Lessons from Exemplary Programs. Volume I. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Family Research Project. Unpaged.

This volume summarizes findings about effective program practices from a study of eleven exemplary family support programs that serve Latino families across the country. The practices common to all programs are listed here.

PROGRAM PRACTICES:

  • Match Program Philosophies and Goals to Those of Participating Families - Focus on families' resources and strengths; respect families' goals for themselves and their children.
  • Seek Ongoing Participant Input - Appoint program participants to governing bodies; encourage community members to participate in staff development activities; involve parents in assessments of their children.
  • Practice Cultural Sensitivity - Conduct outreach in culturally sensitive ways; remove cultural and linguistic barriers posed by staff, physical settings, enrollment procedures, lack of materials in Spanish, etc.
  • Respect Client Preferences - Allow program participants to choose from a variety of services; ensure that group content reflects parents' interests and most pressing concerns; structure some support groups around group activities or information sharing rather than self-disclosure; invite extended family members and close friends to participate when appropriate; offer staff support in the form of frequent contact, home visits and assistance with navigating the social service and health care systems.
  • Recognize Diversity and Change - Be aware that cultural background is important, but each family is unique; recognize different groups - immigrants, migrant workers, ethnic groups, age groups - as having varied needs and resources; remember that needs change and must be periodically reassessed.
  • Engage in Advocacy, Empowerment, and Political Action - Acknowledge that families' social conditions must change before they can do well on a long-term basis; invest energy in advocacy, political action and support of community members' efforts to effect social and political change for themselves.

13. School-Linked Services Hold Promise for Puerto Rican Families     top

Delgado, Marvin (1998). "Linking Schools, Human Services, and Community: A Puerto Rican Perspective." Social Work in Education v20 n2 p121-130.

The authors report results of a study conducted with 24 poor Puerto Rican families whose children attended the same Boston elementary school. The report focuses on the famlies' natural support systems and suggestions for provision of school-linked social services. Collaboration among all service providers is seen as crucial.

Participant Characteristics
The typical family in this study:

  • was headed by a woman in her early 30's who had not finished high school, preferred to speak Spanish and came to the mainland in childhood
  • had no father present
  • was receiving public assistance.

Adults in this sample had less education, and there were fewer families with fathers, than among U.S. Puerto Rican families in general. Families with one or both parents working outside the home still had incomes below the poverty level.

Families Had Little Social Support
The families had many social and health needs not met by natural, informal or formal support systems. Families had a strong preference for using natural support systems but only an average of 1.3 persons on whom they could rely.

Involvement with formal social service organizations, both Latino and non-Latino, was limited. Parents reported that Latino agencies could provide only limited help with public assistance, obtaining other basic resources and advocacy. They also had concerns about breach of confidentiality because many staff lived in the same community. Non-Latino agencies were seen as a last resort because of language and cultural barriers and families' resultant lack of comfort while using them.

School Was An Important Resource
School personnel often functioned as part of families' natural support systems. Some personnel went "above and beyond" their job responsibilites - interpreting forms and letters, helping families get needed clothing, and providing job referrals. Parents also appreciated help with getting involved in classroom activities.

The school played an important role in families lives because:

  • It was located in the community.
  • Personnel were bilingual and bicultural.
  • The school was open at convenient hours.
  • Parents felt welcomed and valued.

Parents were clear about the need for the school and community and social service organizations to improve coordination of their activities and liked the idea of receiving a variety of services at school.

These Elements Are Crucial for Success
Schools must be among the key players in coordinating school-linked services, but numerous other programs must be involved. Some services, including educational programs, may be delivered at other sites. Successful providers of school-linked services have programs with

  • strong leadership to mobilize community and political support
  • effective collaboration between school and other program staff
  • multidisciplinary teams to provide referral and service
  • follow-up to ensure that services are appropriate and effectively delivered
  • involvement of parents in planning, provision and evaluation of services
  • inclusion of less traditional programs, such as health and nutrition, exercise, computer training, etc.

Internet Resources     top

SUPPORTING LATINO FAMILIES

Family Support America
This organization, formerly the Resource Coalition of America, offers legislative and policy updates, information about cooperative efforts with state service providers, online articles from the journal Family Support and other publications for practitioners and parents.http://www.frca.org/

Diversity Database of the National Network for Child Care
This site offers articles for practitioners, child care providers and parents on the topics of cultural diversity and sensitivity. http://www.nncc.org/Diversity/divers.page.html

Connect for Kids
Choose the Race and Ethnicity category on this Benton Foundation search page to find information about current economic, health, education and social issues that affect the welfare of Latino children. http://www.connectforkids.org/search_site1581/search_site.htm

Welfare Information Network
This site provides frequently updated information about federal law that affects public benefits for immigrants. http://www.welfareinfo.org/

Illinois Welfare Information Network
Look here to find current information about immigrants' eligibility for grants, medical assistance and food stamps in Illinois, as well as programs that provide support for welfare recipients. http://www.iwin.org/

National Center on Poverty Law
This site features a monthly online newsletter, Illinois Welfare News, and other up-to-date information about public benefits for Illinois immigrants. http://www.povertylaw.org/iwn/iwn.htm

North American Council on Adoptable Children
Here you will find a variety of information about recruiting and supporting adoptive parents. http://www.nacac.org/

MATERIALS FOR PARENTS

National Parent Information Network
NPIN's virtual library offers Spanish articles on parenting and education. Click on "Full-text resources", then browse an alphabetical list or enter keyword searches for specific topics. http://npin.org/library.html

PARENTING-L
This is an internet discussion group for parents sponsored by NPIN. Learn about how to join on this page. http://npin.org/initiatives.html

Illinois NPIN
Illinois NPIN will answer parenting questions and make referrals to local agencies, organizations, library services, and internet resources related to parenting via it's site. http://npinil.crc.uiuc.edu/questions.html

Nuestra Familia
This Chicago program offers several resources for Latino families with young children. It is one of the programs included in Lessons from Exemplary Family Support Programs, article number 12. http://collaboratory.nunet.net/itrc/ff/center/nf.html